Poverty in Africa Essay

Poverty is an unfortunate condition that exists throughout Africa. It is a widespread condition that affects the entire populace, resulting in Africa being the poorest continent. Poverty in Africa is derived from the many existing problems, and continues to cause devastating effects. However, a number of reforms are being implemented to resolve the problem of poverty. There are a number of existing issues in Africa, which leads to the derivation of poverty. Whether there is a civil war or a quarrel among its countries, Africa constantly remains one of the top locations for conflicts (â€Å"Poverty in Africa†). The effects of warfare, including the shifting of the population, the destruction of fields, crops and infrastructures, and the immigration of people from their homelands contribute to the rise of poverty. The destruction of fields and crops weakens the economy, which results in poor agriculture. With poor lands and agriculture, the availability of food and resources are greatly reduced. The infrastructures are crucial to the prospering of a nation. The lack of infrastructure in Africa results to the low availability of potable, clean water. Also, Africa does not have railways and roads that connect in a significant way, hence any transportation to and within Africa is very difficult (â€Å"Poverty in Africa†). Warfare can also result to refugees, which increases the number of people who are living in destitution. A weak government is also a root of poverty, thus an inefficient government will eventually lead the fall of the economy. It is difficult for a corrupt and an unproductive government to obtain the supplies and provide the people with the basic necessities, such as a providing the people with a proper education, building required infrastructures, and providing the people with enough food and water. Without a productive government, the country will not thrive and as a result, more people in the country will live in poverty.

How are marked and unmarked identities socially produced

A simple definition of identity might be no more than â€Å"who we are†. People of the same nationality or age, for example, can be said to have an identity in common. It follows that by virtue of belonging to more than one group, or â€Å"collective identity†, we all have multiple identities. Identities can connect people; and disconnect them too. Similarities in group identities may give rise to positive connections between people, but equally connections may be negative when referring to differences. An identity created by differences can be: one that is negatively valued; one which ceases to be equal; and one where social life is maintained on an imbalance. Identities can be both individual (for example: female, Southerner) and, through referring to relationships and connections to others (whether they be similar or different), social. Furthermore, social identities can be either situated, that is given by what people are doing (shopping, working), or relational and given by the relationships between people. It is important to note this relational identity can be unequal. The concepts of marked and unmarked identities are a pairing of unequal relational identities where the unmarked identities – taken for granted – are not noticed; in contrast to the marked identities, which always are. As Taylor states, the marked identities â€Å"in most cases carry a negative value† (Taylor, 2009, p179). This essay describes the way marked and unmarked identities are created. An example of marked and unmarked identity is found in Raban’s Street People. They were the homeless living on the streets of New York; they were grouped by â€Å"others† (everyone else) as a collection of â€Å"thieves, alcoholics, the temporarily jobless† (Raban cited in Taylor p176). The identity given to the Street People is relational; it is both detailed and negative and is the marked identity of the pairing. â€Å"Everyone else†, the other half of the relationship, is of course the unmarked identity. People with unmarked identities have a â€Å"vaguely positive ‘normal’ identity which is not really described† (Taylor, 2009, p179). Moreover, the Street People were grouped together as being the â€Å"same†, because as Taylor suggests it is part of the nature of group identities that they are not seen as individuals with different life histories (2009, p177). â€Å"The social process through which the difference of other people is marked and their negatively valued identity becomes established† is known as Othering (Taylor, 2009, p179). From the articles both the Roma or â€Å"immigrants† and the â€Å"thugs† are the marked identities. The Roma immigrants have a racial and ethnic collective identity; they are Roma, from Romania, living in Northern Ireland, some of whom are English-speaking. The attacks against them (by the thugs) are racially motivated, and in racist rhetoric a frequent insistence is that immigrants should ‘go back to where they come from’. As Taylor observes, a racial and ethnic identity, like the Roma, often positions people â€Å"as recent immigrants to the country in which they were born and grew up† (2009, p182). Although the article doesn’t say how long the immigrant Roma people have been living in Belfast, the mention of a baby indicates that in this community there is at least a second generation. The other marked identity is that of the thugs. They are described with labels such as, â€Å"gang†, â€Å"neo-Nazi†, â€Å"racist criminals† and â€Å"far-right faction† whose actions were â€Å"illegal†; although unlike the Street People they may be comfortable claiming at least part of that identity. In both articles figures of authority use powerful language to condemn the behaviour of the thugs and unconditionally support the Roma. The Roma are recognised as making a contribution to the community where they were living, presumably side by side with their assailants, in a cosmopolitan district of Belfast. Despite this, however, they remain marked; their identity is further reinforced and re-created by the negative effect of the rhetoric of persecution and discrimination in both the articles. In contrast, the unmarked identity are the Western, white, Irish who are also given a situational identity by association with their â€Å"cosmopolitan and affluent† place of residence – a strong impression is given of a â€Å"nice† (not a â€Å"working-class†) place to live. In the article the journalist makes a particular point of mentioning that the attacks did not happen in a working-class, Protestant neighbourhood, where perhaps it would be less surprising to see this behaviour? In a modern society it is no longer possible to divide up a community into Karl Marx’s neat groups of capitalists and workers. A more complex picture exists in the contemporary UK of â€Å"middle-class† and â€Å"working-class† groups. Both terms refer to characteristics such as affluence, education, background and even accent, furthermore terms, such as â€Å"chav†, â€Å"posh† or â€Å"yummy mummy† can add further detail. In the article the description of Lisburn Road with â€Å"coffee shops full of affluent young mothers† is describing a comfortable, middle-class district which confers an identity just on the unmarked. As with Raban’s Street People, the Roma and the thugs have been grouped into an â€Å"imagined community†. ’Imagined’ refers to the importance of our ideas and beliefs about the world† (Taylor, 2009, p178). Typically, members of an imagined community are too numerous to be personally acquainted, however, as both the Roma and thugs were relatively small groups it is probable that members were acquainted. The negative collective identity, again as with the Street People, was given by others. Taylor suggests that at some level the experience of being homeless in a modern society in some way constituted the Street People as a group, as the experience of persecution helped constitute the Roma as a group (2009, p178). Finally, the story of the Roma people here is an example of how established differences and inequalities are reinforced. The attacks by the thugs were â€Å"part of a trend of growing abuses against the Roma across Europe† (www. amnestry. org. uk accessed December 2010) they were challenging and contesting the right of the Roma to live in their community. In turn their persecution of the Roma was challenged by residents of the community and figures of authority in an attempt to repair and improve society. Taylor, S (2009) ‘Who do we think we are? Identities in everyday life’ in Taylor, S. Hinchliffe, S. , Clarke, J. and Bromley, S. (eds) Making Social Lives, Milton Keynes, The Open University. Amnesty International accessed 4th December 2010 http://www. amnesty. org. uk/news_details. asp? NewID=18258 Order and predictability are important if society is to exist therefore it is inherent that social order is maintained. Social order can be referred to as a set of linked social structures, social institutions and social practices which act to conserve, maintain and enforce an orderly way of relating and behaving within society. There are various views and theories of how social order is created within society two such views come from Erving Goffman and Michael Foucault. The difference between theories such as those of Erving Goffman and Michael Foucault is primarily one of focus. Goffman analysed social rules governing nonverbal interactions by individual people to develop his theories using the metaphor of a theatre. Goffman demonstrated that the most casual actions, such as posture, body and eye movements that people make are performances aimed toward communicating a positive impression for an audience. Goffman focused on the self and self-presentation he preferred to study individuals. Goffman’s descriptions of individual’s face-to-face interactions formed the large body of his work through this he noted that social interactions could be reworked by changing interactions. In contrast, Michael Foucault preferred to analyse the entire society. He examined the ways in which societies function and the principles of exclusion societies developed to define their differing forms of order throughout different historical times. Foucault did not conduct the type of first hand and intensive field work characteristic of the development of Goffman's theories. Foucault's theories on history and the self were more impersonal and global in focus. They centred on how societies interpreted and implemented their definitions of sane and insane, innocent and criminal and insider and outsider and how with each differing discourse social change emerged creating a new and greater power than the last. Goffman looks at the way individuals present themselves and their activities to others using the theatre as a framework. In his theory of impression management Goffman saw that through interaction with others in society an impression of the subject is given off to others. This is automatic and inevitable. The way people perceive others is through this social interaction. This means that through messages that are given off whether intended or unintended they are the judgments by which people will hold their opinion of others they come into contact with. According to Goffman impression management is fundamentally about expressive responsibility it is about self-consciously crafting an exterior appearance that will not offend the audience. In other words social interaction is an act of dramatization in which people perform in accordance with the social order or environment expected of them the nature of the environment and with the goal of manufacturing performances that are acceptable keeps social order constant but if these interactions are changed or reworked the result will be different disrupting the social norms within society (Silva, 2009, p. 16). In contrast to Goffmans research Foucault dismisses the view that individuals have any power or control over society looking instead at historical evidence and exploring how social order is written and talked about differently depending on what is deemed appropriate by the organisations which govern society at the time which he is studying he called these discourses the way different frameworks guide what is acceptable within these periods of time whether it be the way people are talking or acting at any given point in history. So as well as looking at how these subjects act within the larger society he is looking at society itself as a larger organism this allows him to explore micro as well as macro rather than Goffmans studies of only the micro or the individual. (Silva, 2009, p. 319) There are however similarities between the two in that they are both concerned with the bigger picture of understanding how society and social order is formed, maintained, changed and rebuilt over time the differences only become visible when their methods and theories are broken down. A good way to explore both the similarities and differences in these theories is to look at the case studies by Buchanan and Monderman In these instances the focus is the relationship between traffic and pedestrians and how the governance of these variables act as agents in the conception of social order. Buchanan and Monderman explored how the relationship between traffic and pedestrians makes and remakes social order. Traffic congestion in Britain’s towns and cities increased in correlation with the rise in car ownership following the conclusion of the Second World War. Buchanan was commissioned in 1961 by the UK Government to deliver the report ‘Traffic in Towns’. This report was deemed necessary to avoid demand for road space being greater than that available. The recommendation of the Buchanan report was that traffic and pedestrians should be segregated. Buchanan’s principle was to isolate areas for working, shopping and leisure, separate to ‘corridors’ where traffic could move freely without disruption, regulating the movements of both traffic and pedestrians. The isolated areas were described as ‘environmental units’ (Silva, 2009, p. 328). Monderman’s view directly contradicted the ideas presented by Buchanan. Monderman challenged the principle of segregation as well as other factors associated with traffic calming such as warning signs and speed humps. This philosophy of shared space takes a different approach to public spaces and highways in that segregation are almost exclusive to highways. Monderman’s thesis uses psychological traffic calming to improve road safety using measures such as abolishing roadside markings and Signposting. Monderman pioneered the idea of the ‘naked street’ the removal of what he viewed as unnecessary ‘street furniture’ within this model which promotes the idea of social order being maintained and balanced by the interaction between drivers and pedestrians (Silva, 2009, p. 333). Monderman displays awareness and understanding of the driver of the vehicle in contrast to Buchanan, Monderman implies that the driver rather than the vehicle is the true cause of potential danger on the road. Both of these studies can be used and compared to those of Foucault and Goffman both have differing views centred on the same big issue for example Michel Foucault theorised that we behave according to what he refers to as discourse. In this instance discourse is what is in everyday talking, thinking and reading, but it has come down from people and institutions invested with authority. In his view we think we are free to act but in reality we are obeying authority figures this can applied to the report by Colin Buchanan When people drive they automatically obey road signs and physical features Foucault proposes that discourses are replaced as the need arises but that they are always cascaded down from authority figures. These figures change through time from the organisations in charge of social order and so on. So as we had more cars on the road we had new rules around their use. Monderman’s approach had the street furniture and segregation and claimed that pedestrians going through what became known as shared spaces instinctively knew to be aware of other road users and pedestrians and negotiated their way by making eye contact with each other. Erving Goffman's theory can be compared to this as he believed that people interact with each other in daily life to make things work better so that they can make changes in social order which they can claim as their own rather controlled governing bodies. n conclusion both have many similarities such as their desire to understand social life and order, they are both rational in their ideas of authority although neither claims to have a definitive theory of social order both believe it is made up of sequences whether it be small individual pieces or discourses that creates power and organisation however they differ in their approaches to what components make up society one taking the individual and one taking society as a whole. One believing that the way individuals act towards one another directly affects how social order is made and remade one believing that this is only influenced by larger organisms such as government as a whole not as individual entities. Both views have merit and are not without fault but are in their own ways directly concerned with the bigger picture that is social order within society.

Boeing is the Manufacturing of Commercial Airplane and Military Research Paper

Boeing is the Manufacturing of Commercial Airplane and Military Airplanes - Research Paper Example In its growth, Boeing has managed to broaden its portfolio and grow its revenues and profitably, which has translated into improved stakeholder value. Boeing is ranked second after Airbus on being the maker of commercial jets and falls second after Lockheed Martin as a defense contractor. This research paper explores how Boeing leverages leveraged its performance through the use of strategic information architecture systems to meet its strategic enterprise objectives. Background Overtime, Boeing has grown to become one of U.S. biggest commercial jet manufacturers to command a significant global market share. The core objective of Boeing centers of continuing to lead the industry and creating innovative aircrafts and satisfying the entire customer’s growing needs. Boeing aspires to be the strongest, and the best integrated aerospace-based company globally. Boeing has grown to become the largest global aircraft manufacturer by revenue, deliveries, and orders, as well as one of t he largest aerospace and defense contractor globally. Boeing’s Commercial Aviation Services section enables Boeing to provide efficient, timely technical support to help airlines operators to keep their airplanes in optimum operating state. The acquisition of McDonnell Douglas in 1997 played a big role in raising the stature of the company. In 2010, Boeing revenue stood at USD 64.306 billion, which a drop of 6% from 2009 full-year results. The drop in revenue can be linked to multiple factors such as a reduction in airline demand, as well as production interruptions and consequent negative publicity connected to delays for the delivery of 787 Boeing Dreamliner (Boeing, 2011). The Boeing 787 Dreamliner can be regarded to be the most successful product that Boeing has launched in the recent past judged by the numbers of orders that Boeing has received. In the 1st Quarter of 2011, Boeing succeeded in raising its revenue by 2% from the 2010 revenue of $30.79 billion to $31.45 bil lion. Similarly, Boeing’s net income increased to $3.31 billion in 2010 from a 2009 net income of $1.31 billion. The 250% jump in net income emanate from the streamlining and efficiency procedures that Boeing implemented. During the first half of 2011, Boeing’s net income increased by 17% from $1.31 (2010) to $1.53 billion (2011) (Boeing, 2011). This demonstrates the economic success that Boeing currently enjoys owing to the robustness of its operations and the capability to utilize its resources productively. Boeing’s Organization and Management of Information Systems Boeing has a strong commitment towards the long-term enhancement in its products and processes. Boeing has a strong commitment towards customer satisfaction and improving shareholder value, which necessitates that Boeing continuously work together to enhance the overall efficiency and productivity within its design, administrative, manufacturing, and support organizations. The need for continuousl y improve products makes technology a central factor in generating the future of the aerospace industry. Boeing’s client base extends in over in over 90 countries, which has necessitated its adoption of partnerships across the globe in technology, service, and manufacturing sectors. Furthermore, Boeing enjoys a robust, in-house, research, design and technology-development departments and has also extended research and develop centers and programs in a number countries.  Ã‚  

Discussion Question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 16

Discussion Question - Essay Example Due to globalization and economic changes, Chine has embraced new trade tact such as CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility). However, on the ethical front, China scores poorly in terms of corruption and human rights index. Many people in the country feel that corruption is one the increase and this might affect organisational policies. Since kick backs or bribes might be solicited in the process of undertaking business. Most of the people involved in corruption are the business sector followed closely by government officials and politicians. China’s position in the global trade has led to improved relations and human rights record (Isik-Vanelli, 2009). However, since their culture is quite protective it will be difficult to the country to open up to the Western world and culture. The above social and ethical issues will be difficult to change in Chine since changing the Chinese culture is quite

Compare and contrast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Compare and contrast - Essay Example The purpose of this paper is to compare growing up in a single parent family vs. a two parent family. The biggest victims in a divorce scenario are the children. The younger the children are the more impacted they are by a divorce. When two parents get divorce they are supposed to jointly care for the children. The wife typically gets custody of the children with the father having privileges of visiting or staying with the kids during weekends. Children that are raised in a single parent family suffer from more emotional stress than dual parent homes. They do not get the chance to have two parents to rely on at all times. The financial resources of single parent families are lower than in two parent families. It is common knowledge that having more financial resources increases the quality of life of a family. Money does not buy happiness, but it enables the parents to buy clothes, food, medicine, toys, and entertainment for the children. Due to the lower financial resources of singl e parent families the home or apartment they live in are inferior in terms of space and quality of neighborhood. There are some advantages to living in a single parent scenario. The children in these situations usually become more independent. They also may enjoy the love of two additional step parents and step siblings.

Auditing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Auditing - Assignment Example The research delves on five of the major areas of heightened audit risk of Havelock Europa Plc (Havelock Europa, 2013). The basis for including the accounts as heightened risk involves two factors. The two factors are internal control and inherent risk (Messier, 2011). Certain financial report accounts have higher probabilities of errors or frauds. The current research centres on five such financial report accounts. The accounts are sales, receivables, payables, cash, and inventory. There is an audit risk that there is error or fraud in the  £ 100,778 thousand Revenue amount during 2012. There is a probability that sales completed during January of 2013 were included in the 2012 sales figure. This can be fraudulently done in order to present a falsely higher sales figure, improving the company’s financial report image (Lyn, 2011). Similarly, there is a probability that uncompleted sales transactions were included in the 2012 financial reports (Dauber, 2009). The uncompleted sales amount includes customer’s promise to purchase the company’s products and services that were never completed. Another possibility is that products returned by customers were not recorded as sales revenue reductions (sales returns). Similarly, discounts given to customers who pay early or pay in case are not reflected as deductions from the gross revenue amounts. Further, sales allowances given to customers to satisfy their complaints concerning poor product and service quality may not be deduction from the gross revenue amount. Further, another possibility is recording a Revenue transaction when there is actually no sales transaction started, processed, or completed (Dauber, 2009). Likewise, there is a possibility that the sales amounts were erroneous recorded or fraudulently recorded. In addition, the financial reports may erroneously or fraudulently not include some realized

Marketing Ethics and Marketing Success Assignment

Marketing Ethics and Marketing Success - Assignment Example Any such deficiency sooner or later is likely to have a rebound effect on the future success or failure of the business organization. Rigorous application of marketing ethics is therefore essential for any short or long-term success. ‘Ethics are the moral principles and values that govern the actions and decisions of an individual or group’- (www-rohan.sdsu.edu). Whenever a moral dilemma surfaces during the course of some action, ethics provide the guidelines for taking the appropriate decision. They are unlike the law in the pretext that the latter is enforceable in a court of justice while the former is to be practiced conscientiously. Ethical violations can either be intentional or inadvertent (Upshaw, 2005). Intentional violations include conspiracies to defraud, mismanagement for financial gain and cover-ups for illegal actions and the inadvertent violations include regulatory abuse due to ignorance, poor products due to inadequate quality controls and unintended environmental damage (Upshaw, 2005). Historically, in actual situations, however, it has been seen that ethics are sometimes neglected in order to attain short-term gains in the volatile consumer market. Ethical practices have frequently been ignored in order to make immediate profits but proved disastrous in the long term. One such example is that of Pfizer Pharmaceuticals Company which has a worldwide presence but has been known to violate business ethics on numerous occasions. The company is one of the giants in research and development on drugs and has come up with innovative products for human as well animal use. Healthcare ethics have a standard which is unparalleled in any other organization as it directly involves playing with human life. Pfizer has been blamed for launching new drugs without issuing warnings of the side effects associated with their use which could prove fatal in individuals prone to such side effects.  Ã‚  

Dams Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Dams - Essay Example The quality of the material that is being used in dams has drastically changed and includes material like cement and stone so that the dam can withhold the pressure (Lempà ©rià ¨re, 2013). As time passed by, it was seen that dams provided an ideal storage of water along with other benefits but with these benefits it also became clear that dams had their own disastrous effects too. This essay will revolve around the Ilisu dam and conclude if the advantages of building the dam outweigh the disadvantages that it can pose. Ilisu dam is built at an ideal location and can help to ensure a clean environment for the people who are living around. The clean environment here refers to the decrease in water pollution because of the dam (TMFA, 2011). Ilisu dam is being constructed on the technique of a hydroelecticity and does not include irrigation in its plan; this can help to ensure that the Tigris river is not polluted as the returning water would be clean as it should be. Along with the dam, a facility for the treatment of sewerage is also being developed so that the problem of eutrophication can be avoided (Bosshard, 2000). The problem of green house gas emission has long been debated with the development of new technology, but with Ilisu dam it can be said that the environment is safe as it would be run by hydro-electricity and green house gases would hence not be emitted in any form (European Commission, 2014). The dam not only provides a safe environment for the people of Turkey but it can also help t he people to improve their lifestyle. This can be achieved by preserving the Hasankeyf town of Turkey which had been partially destroyed by floods (TMFA, 2011). It can hence be said that the dam can provide a lot of advantages to the locals of the area if it is built accordingly. On the contrary, the dam has a lot of disadvantages too which

SWFS 5004 Social Inclusion (Part 2) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

SWFS 5004 Social Inclusion (Part 2) - Essay Example In simple terms therefore, social exclusion may refer to the extent to which individuals are unable to participate in key areas of economic, social and cultural life (Levitas, 1998). While clarifying this definition, Hilary (2007) explains that an individual can become socially excluded if he or she fails to participate fully in key activities carried out in his or her society. In view of the foregoing definition, it can clearly be upheld that social exclusion involves an individual’s lack of participation in society and emphasizes the multi-dimensional, multi-layered and dynamic nature of the problem (Frazer & Marlier, 2007). The concept of social exclusion can thus be found to possess four salient features namely: lack of participation, multi-dimensional, dynamism and multi-layered. Silver (1994) observes that the causes of social exclusion operate at many levels including individual, household, community and institutional. Hilary (2007) sums up the concept of social exclusi on as the inter-connectivity between â€Å"a person’s social class, educational status, relationships in childhood and living standards as well as how these might affect access to various opportunities†. ... It similarly presents a PowerPoint presentation of my personal reflections on my own values of respect, caring and person centered. Aspects of social inclusion and social exclusion As earlier explained in the foregoing introductory part of this essay, social exclusion has been demonstrated to be multidimensional going beyond the issue of material poverty. According to Will (2007), social exclusion also encompasses other forms of social disadvantages such as lack of regular and equal access to education, health care, social care as well as proper housing. Additionally, the same causes go beyond material poverty and further encompass a wide range of reasons including discrimination against immigrants, ethnic minorities, the disabled, the elderly or ex-offenders (Will, 2007). Secondly, social exclusion is also considered to be a process in itself rather than a mere outcome of a process as espoused by Paris (2004). Research indicates that the accumulation of a number of disadvantages ass ociated with social exclusion may result in a self-reinforcing cycle that makes it difficult to attribute causality to one specific factor or another (Frazer & Marlier, 2007). This fact has led a multiplicity of social scientists to delve into the genesis of social exclusion, making the concept quite dynamic, where different individuals or groups of individuals find themselves in different stages of the exclusion process, whether temporarily, recurringly or continuously (Levitas, 1998). Apart from the preceding argument, the concept of social exclusion is said to be context-specific where best inclusion endeavors are in ways that are specific to particular localities. This in essence implies that countries and governments need to develop

Analysis on the Metamorphosis by applying physical or mental illness Essay

Analysis on the Metamorphosis by applying physical or mental illness to Gregor - Essay Example Gregor was initially concerned about the nature of his job, observing that it was always demanding, due to the requirements to travel every day, face irregular train connections and eat bad food. However, of great concern is the fact that Gregor had â€Å"worries about†¦temporary and constantly changing human relationships which never come from the heart† (Kafka, 4). This is a simple indication that Gregor was not actually fascinated by the nature of the interactions that he had in the course of his job. It is this lack of appreciation of the social interactions that is characteristic of the attempts to avoid social interactions, which is a symptom of Avoidant Personality Disorder. The other aspect of Gregor that is characteristic of the disorder is the fact that he did not want to be associated with the others unless he was certain that he would be accepted. This nature of caution is attributable to the Avoidant Personality Disorder, which is symptomatic of a person avoiding any form of communication and interaction with the rest of the people, unless he/she is assured that the other people will like him or her (Johansen, et al., 518). In this respect, when Gregor’s family and the office manager came to check on Gregor after he had delayed to come out of his bedroom, he did not instantly wish to communicate to any of them, unless he was sure they would not reject him because of his new monstrous insect status. Thus, when his sister Grete whispered at his door that the office manager was there, the response was; â€Å"‘I know,’ said Gregor to himself. But he did not dare make his voice loud enough so that his sister could hear† (Kafk a, 14). This behavior is characteristic of avoiding interaction with others until at least some assurance would be given that he would be accepted in his new status. Showing restraint to intimately close relationship is yet another symptom of the Avoidant Personality Disorder

Frankenstein by Mary Shelly Essay Example for Free

Frankenstein by Mary Shelly Essay The setting in both books is mainly in the 18th century where there wasnt anything too modern which helped add the theme of gothic horror to the reading audience as in those times it was a lot darker and more horrifying. In an Interview with a vampire the story is set over 200 years. Showing as the theme of gothic horror in the book decreases, as the book becomes more modern. This is shown when Lestat is scared of the modern world and the artificial lights as he thinks they are sunlight scaring him into hiding. There are various themes in both books for example they have written one of the characters acting like God, Lestat in Interview with a vampire and Victor in Frankenstein. This was especially scary in Frankenstein 1816 as the people took religion very seriously and to talk about gods in this way was known as evil, which scared the people who read the book Which would inspire terror into the people who read it. When in Frankenstein the creature says I am thy creature, I ought to be thy Adam And in Interview in the vampire when Lestat acts as god by creating Louie and also when Lestat says they are the same as God when he says Gods kill, and so shall we This shows the God theme as Lestat connects being a vampire to being Gods which is shown in the quote. Another thing in both books they deal with the themes of outsiders. In Frankenstein when the creature is looking in On examining the dwelling, I found that one of the windows of the cottage had formally occupied part of it but the panes had been boarded up with wood. In one of these was a small and almost imperceptible chick, through which the eye could just penetrate. Through this crevice a small room was visible. Also in Interview with a vampire Louie became an outsider when he became a vampire. I said goodbye to the sunrise and went out to become a vampire The two texts are very similar though in many ways. First of all in both texts the main character is an outsider, Louie as a Vampire as he is different from everyone else as he is a vampire and Victor as an outcast to everyone else as he created this monster and is a criminal for doing so making him an outsider and different to other people. Also both authors have lost a child which may have helped write the book using their life experiences to help them writing the book. Both books have roughly the same plot when Louie or the creature both have a natural birth and find it hard to survive. Also in both books they murder when the creature kills people or Louie kills people for blood. As when Louie said, Now I am guilty of murder. I think the authors of these two texts have dont an excellent job in dealing with the theme of outsiders in the text as the setting, the characters and whats happening around them all make them outsiders. Also what the characters are and how they act and what they do which inspires terror or horror into the reader create the genre of Gothic horror and make it stand out. But what most of all stuck into my mind were the words from Louie, which really made me think Gothic horror and outsiders, was I wanted love and goodness in this which is living death I said It was impossible from the beginning, because you cannot have love and goodness when you do what you know to be evil, what you know to be wrong and also in Frankenstein when Victor said It was necessary that I should return without delay to Geneva, there to watch over the lives of those I do fondly loved; and to lie in wait for the murderer, that if any chance led me to the place of his concealment, or if he dared Both showing the Gothic horror in their words like when they say murderer and evil creating the gothic horror feeling. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Mary Shelley section.

Services for Community Healthcare

Services for Community Healthcare Introduction (2000-3000) Essential services Community pharmacies provide various services to their customers every day. These services include essential services such as dispensing medicines, dispensing appliances, repeat dispensing, clinical governance, signposting, promotion of healthy lifestyle, disposal of unwanted medicines and support for self-care. These services are delivered by all pharmacies as part of the NHS pharmacy contract.[1] Advanced services There are four advanced services that can be delivered by the community pharmacies if they meet the criteria set up in the contract. These services include Medicines Use Reviews (MUR), New Medicines Service (NMS), Appliance Use Reviews (AUR) and Stoma Appliance Customisation (SAC).[2] Most customers visit pharmacies in order to receive essential services. Customer’s perspectives on community pharmacies can be based around other factors as well as the quality of service they received from their pharmacist. Therefore customer’s perception of community pharmacies is of extreme importance as they deliver various services to patients on daily basis. Each pharmacist has a duty of care to their patients. Pharmacists are easily accessible and highly trusted in the communities. Their responsibilities include dispensing medicines as well as providing pharmaceutical care. They can increase patient’s participation in their own care by educating them about their disease, explaining the importance of adherence and increasing awareness of the most common side effects.[3] They can counsel patients about drugs such as appropriate drug usage, administration, dosage, side effects, storage and drug–drug and drug–food interactions.[4] Pharmaceutical Care Pharmaceutical care is described as the responsible provision of drug therapy for the purpose of achieving definitive outcomes that improve a patient’s quality of life.[5] Later a new definition emerged in which pharmaceutical care was described as â€Å"A practice in which the practitioner takes responsibility for the patients’ drug related needs and is held accountable for this commitment†[6] Many people are prescribed multiple and long term medication. Pharmaceutical care includes collecting information, assessing information, setting appropriate objectives, selecting appropriate therapy and monitoring the effectiveness of therapy and educating patients on medicine use. All steps need the involvement of patient from collecting information to the selection of therapy and implementing that therapy for the benefit of the patient. Today’s pharmacist needs to make patients the centre of their attention. Pharmacists can maximise the therapeutic benefit to the patient by using a multidisciplinary approach such as consultation with other healthcare professionals and the patients themselves. Pharmacists can play a fundamental role in the overall patient experience as they are a critical source of drug knowledge in community, hospitals and industry. Different roles are played by the pharmacists throughout the world such as some prepare and supply medicines whilst others share their expertise and knowledge with healthcare professionals and patients and work in medicines information teams.[7] Social change through health promotion campaigns, media and internet has led to increased risk awareness amongst the public and therefore there is an increase in demand for their questions to be answered and their issues to be taken up by healthcare professionals. Pharmacists are at the forefront of this interaction and they must lead as a model to others and develop confidence amongst their patients by appropriately dealing with their concerns. They can do this by keeping themselves up to date with the latest developments in the pharmaceutical industry. The media plays a key role in influencing public opinion regarding the quality of treatment and the variety of different drugs used to treat disease. Pharmacists should ensure that they are fully aware of such topics and can thoroughly answer any issues raised in their pharmacy. A good example of this is the advice that the pharmacists can offer to their patients in regards to their smoking habits. They can play a proactive role in identifying the fact that they smoke and then tailoring them to the appropriate smoking cessation schemes. This will improve the quality of pharmaceutical services, instilling confidence in the patient with the fact that pharmacist is an effective point of call. In recent years, provision of pharmacy services has shifted more towards pharmaceutical care along with medicine supply.[8] Although some personal and social barriers exist in pharmacist-patient communication[9] but the involvement of patients in their own care is helping to eliminate these barriers.[10] The quality of pharmaceutical care depends on the ability of the pharmacist. An outcome of the therapy can be improved if regular interactions are maintained between the pharmacist and the patient.[11] Many studies have shown that patients feel they benefit more if they maintain a regular contact with the pharmacist and they consider pharmacist to be an important source of information for medicines and minor ailments.[12][13][14] The World Health Organisation (WHO) has made a valuable contribution to the recognition of the importance of a pharmacist’s role worldwide, especially in quality assurance and the safe and effective administration of drugs.[15] WHO along with International Pharmaceutical Federation proposed a seven star pharmacist concept, which requires future pharmacists to possess specific knowledge, attitude, skills and behaviour.[16] In addition WHO recommends 1 pharmacist per 2000 population to ensure optimum benefit to the society from efficient provision of pharmaceutical services. Each pharmacist should be held accountable for the cost, quality and results of pharmaceutical care provided to the patients. Also they should be involved in decisions about health policies.[17] Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) Pharmacists can play a vital role in healthcare by preventing adverse drug reactions (ADRs) caused by overdosing, medication errors and non-adherence. ADRs include any undesirable outcome that can be attributed to the action of a drug. ADRs can cause various problems such as: the driving of further complications in existing disease, delaying the cure of a disease, mimicking other disease states. As a consequence this result in ineffective treatment as the drug induced problem goes unrecognised. Thus, causing patients to lose confidence in their pharmacist and the overall quality of their treatment. This demonstrates that ADRs are a driving force behind additional problems e.g 6.5% of hospital admissions are due to drug therapy problems.[18] 10% of patients admitted to acute hospitals experienced an adverse drug reaction. Half of these were considered preventable.[19] 14.7% of hospital in-patients are as a consequence of ADRs. ADRs are also a significant cause of morbidity thus increasing the length of stay of patients by an average of 0.25 days/patient per admission episode. The drugs most frequently associated with ADRs are diuretics, opioid analgesics, anticoagulants and NSAID’s.[20] These four drug groups account for 50% of all drug related admissions. As an example ADRs caused by NSAID’s account for 12,000 bleeding ulcers/year leading to 2,000 deaths/year.[21] Pharmacist’s Significance One of the very important aspects of this profession involves every professional working to their full potential to provide the best possible care and service to their customers. However, if a pharmacist does not provide the optimum attention and care to their patients then it can bring down the reputation and the effectiveness of the profession. Pharmacists are of utmost importance in ensuring that their attitude towards this side of the practice is as critical as ensuring the clinical and legal correctness of a prescription. This can not only correct the mistakes made while dispensing but ensure a significant benefit to the patient’s health from the therapy utilised to benefit the patient. A lack of consideration towards this aspect of the practice is harmful to the patient and the NHS as it will prolong the time required to manage and cure the conditions under treatment. Quality of services delivered by community pharmacies is mostly assessed by patient’s opinion and customer satisfaction surveys which are carried out as an integral component of the essential services through clinical governance.[22] The responsibility of ensuring the safe and effective use of medicines lies with the pharmacists whether it is community or hospital pharmacy. Pharmacists can fulfil this responsibility by counselling patients about their conditions and medications.[23] Precise role of the community pharmacist is defined by General Pharmaceutical Counsel (GPHC) and other professional pharmaceutical associations.[24] Public Perception of Community Pharmacist Public view of pharmacists is not that of healthcare advisors thus limiting pharmacist’s role and restricting them in providing beneficial services to the public. There is a need to educate public about the role a pharmacist could play in providing advice and guidance in minor ailments and pharmacists being the first line of approach when faced with a health related issue. Consumers who approach pharmacists are those who have previous experience of receiving help from pharmacists to treat minor ailments. Even then they don’t use pharmacists as first point of contact they normally tend to research and self-diagnose before seeking help from a healthcare professional such as a pharmacist. Thus this limits the role a pharmacist could play in giving advice and helping customers.[25] Patient-pharmacist interaction is an essential tool to discovering better strategies and methods that could be employed in everyday practice to make the service better and more useful. This can be done by asking for opinions from the patients about the services that they have received while attending a pharmacy. These can be used to evaluate the need for a new intervention and improve the quality of current services.[26] Also these observations can form a guideline when implementing improved strategies and referred to when measuring an improvement in the quality of service.[27] Customer Satisfaction Satisfaction has been defined as â€Å"the health care recipient’s reaction to salient aspects of his or her service experience† by Cleary and McNeil.[28] A study has defined customer satisfaction as an emotional response which relates to expectations and develops after consumption experience.[29] Throughout the world many studies have been conducted in to the role of the pharmacist and patient satisfaction from the community pharmacies. [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] A study in Qatar reported that public does not understand the role of community pharmacists as healthcare provider. [41] However, people in Maltese and Portuguese understand community pharmacist’s roles as a healthcare provider. [42] Public in Saudi Arabia appreciated pharmacists role and did approach them for advice. [43] Most Australians feel that pharmacist do not explain medication use properly. [44] Japanese customers would like direct communication with pharmacist and convenient opening hours. [45] A study in Canada reported high levels of customer satisfaction from the services provided by community pharmacies.[46] Hargie et al conducted a study in UK in 1992 to measure consumer perceptions and attitudes to community pharmacy services. They found that 32% of people considered pharmacists as business orientated, 26% considered pharmacists as health orientated and 42% considered them as both health and business. [47] Community pharmacies were highly rated in US by the pub lic in a survey in 1997. [48] A study by Larson et al. (2002) into patient satisfaction found that customers were more satisfied with the friendly approach by the staff than the pharmaceutical care by the pharmacists. [49] Another study by Cerulli (2002) reported that customers had a positive impression of community pharmacists and a foundation of customer-pharmacist relationship had been established. [50] The US national pharmacy consumer survey in 2002 reported high satisfaction with pharmacy services. [51] Most reports suggest that customers are satisfied with the pharmacist as drug experts and the services provided by community pharmacies. However some aspects can be improved such as the privacy, confidentiality and unequal treatment of customers.[52] This study can provide important information about patient’s perception of community pharmacies and the changes required to improve quality of performance. [1] http://psnc.org.uk/services-commissioning/essential-services/ [2] http://psnc.org.uk/services-commissioning/essential-services/ [3] Bluml BM. Definition of medication therapy management: development of professionwide consensus. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2005;45:566–572 [4] Hà ¤mmerlein A., Griese N., Schulz M. Survey of drug-related problems identified by community pharmacies. Ann Pharmacother. 2007;41(11):1825–1832. [PubMed] [5] Hepler C.D., Strand L.M.: Am. J. Hosp. Pharm. 47, 533 (1990). [6] Strand L.M.: J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 37, 474, (1997) [7]Gilbert L.: Curr. Sociol.49, 97 (2001). [8]. Kotecki J.E.: J. Commun. Health, 27, 291 (2002). Worley M.M. Schommer J.C., Brown L.M., Hadsall R.S., Ranelli P.L., Stratton T.P., Uden D.L.: Res. Social Adm. Pharm. 3, 47 (2007). [9]Paluck E.C., Green LW, Frankish CJ, Fielding DW, Haverkamp B: Eval. Health Prof. 26, 380 (2003). [10]Tio J., LaCaze A., Cottrell N.: Pharm. World Sci. 29, 73 (2007) [11]Nau D.P., Ried L.D., Lipowski E.E., Kimberlin C., Pendergast J., Spivey-Miller S.: J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 40, 36 (2000). [12]Tio J., LaCaze A., Cottrell N.: Pharm. World Sci. 29, 73 (2007). [13] [14]. Nau D.P., Ried L.D., Lipowski E.E., Kimberlin C., Pendergast J., Spivey-Miller S.: J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 40, 36 (2000). [15] Dunlop J.A., Shaw J.P.: Pharm. World Sci. 24, 224 (2002). [16]Zammit D.: Pharm. J. 271, 468 (2003). [17]Khan, R.A., Pharmacy education and healthcare.Dawn, Pakistan, June 29 (2007). [18]Pirmohamed et al, British Medical Journal2004; 329: 15-19 [19]Vincent C et al, British Medical Journal2001; 322: 517-519 (http://bmj.bmjjournals.com) [20](Davies EC et al PLoS ONE 2009; 4(2): e4439) [21](Davies EC et al PLoS ONE 2009; 4(2): e4439) [22] Ried LD, Wang F, Young H, Awiphan R. Patients’ satisfaction and their perception of the pharmacist. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash) 1999;39(6):835–842. [PubMed] [23] Hepler CD, Strand LM. Opportunities and responsibilities in pharmaceutical care. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1990;47:533–543. [PubMed] [24] FIP International Pharmaceutical Federation. URL: http://www.fip.org/community_pharmacy . [15 April 2014]. [25] Advice provided in British community pharmacies: what people want and what they get. Hassell K1, Noyce P, Rogers A, Harris J, Wilkinson J. [26] Kucukarslan S.N., Nadkarni A. Evaluating medication-related services in a hospital setting using the disconfirmation of expectations model of satisfaction. Res Social Dam Pharm. 2008;4(1):12–22. [PubMed] [27] Iqbal Z, Jalees AF, Khar Roop Krishen KR, Sushama T. Pharmacist as an Indispensable Part of Health Care System: A Survey, Outcome and Reflections. Indian J. Pharm. Educ. Res. 42(1), Jan- Mar, 2008:78–83. [28] Cleary PD, McNeil BJ. Patient satisfaction as an indicator of quality care. Inquiry. 1988;25(1):25-36. [PubMed] [29] Oparah A.C., Kikanme L.C. Consumer satisfaction with community pharmacies in Warri. Nigeria. Res Social Adm Pharm. 2006;2(4):499–511. [PubMed] [30] Wirth F., Tabone F., Azzopardi L.M., Gauci M., Zarb-Adami M., Serracino-Inglott A. Consumer perception of the community pharmacist and community pharmacy services in Malta. Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research. 2010;1:189–194. [31] Cavaco A.M., Dias J.P., Bates I.P. Consumers’ perceptions of community pharmacy in Portugal: a qualitative exploratory study. Pharm World Sci. 2005;27(1):54–60. [PubMed] [32] Bawazir S.A. Consumer attitudes towards community pharmacy services in Saudi Arabia. Int J Pharm Pract. 2004;12:83–89. [33] Oritz M, Liden D, Thomas R, Morgan G, Morland R. The impact of professional services on pharmacy patronage: findings of a pharmacy practice foundation survey (Part 6) Aust J Pharm 1987; 68: 207–14. [34] Farris K.B., Stenton S.B., Samnani M., Samycia D. How satisfied are your patients? Can Pharm J. 2000;10:32–36. [35] Kamei M., Teshima K., Fukushima N., Nakamura T. Investigation of patients’ demand for community pharmacies: Relationship between pharmacy services and patient satisfaction. Yakugaku Zasshi. 2001;121(3):215–220. [PubMed] [36] Hargie O., Morrow N., Woodman C. Consumer perceptions of and attitudes to community pharmacy services. Pharm J. 1992;249:988–991. [37] Briesacher B., Corey R. Patient satisfaction with pharmaceutical services at independent and chain pharmacies. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 1997;54:531–536. [PubMed] [38] Larson L.N., Rovers J.P., MacKeigan L.D. Patient satisfaction with pharmaceutical care: Update of a validated instrument. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2002;42:44–50. [PubMed] [39] Cerulli J. Patients’ perceptions of independent community pharmacists. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2002;42:279–282. [PubMed] [40] Stergachis A., Maine L.L., Brown L. The 2001 national pharmacy consumer survey. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2002;42:568–576. [PubMed] [41] El Hajj M.S., Salem S., Mansoor H. Public’s attitudes towards community pharmacy in Qatar: a pilot study. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2011;5:405–422. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [42] Wirth F., Tabone F., Azzopardi L.M., Gauci M., Zarb-Adami M., Serracino-Inglott A. Consumer perception of the community pharmacist and community pharmacy services in Malta. Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research. 2010;1:189–194. [43] Bawazir S.A. Consumer attitudes towards community pharmacy services in Saudi Arabia. Int J Pharm Pract. 2004;12:83–89. [44] Oritz M, Liden D, Thomas R, Morgan G, Morland R. The impact of professional services on pharmacy patronage: findings of a pharmacy practice foundation survey (Part 6) Aust J Pharm 1987; 68: 207–14. [45] Farris K.B., Stenton S.B., Samnani M., Samycia D. How satisfied are your patients? Can Pharm J. 2000;10:32–36. [46] Kamei M., Teshima K., Fukushima N., Nakamura T. Investigation of patients’ demand for community pharmacies: Relationship between pharmacy services and patient satisfaction. Yakugaku Zasshi. 2001;121(3):215–220. [PubMed] [47] Hargie O., Morrow N., Woodman C. Consumer perceptions of and attitudes to community pharmacy services. Pharm J. 1992;249:988–991. [48] Briesacher B., Corey R. Patient satisfaction with pharmaceutical services at independent and chain pharmacies. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 1997;54:531–536. [PubMed] [49] Larson L.N., Rovers J.P., MacKeigan L.D. Patient satisfaction with pharmaceutical care: Update of a validated instrument. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2002;42:44–50. [PubMed] [50] Cerulli J. Patients’ perceptions of independent community pharmacists. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2002;42:279–282. [PubMed] [51] Stergachis A., Maine L.L., Brown L. The 2001 national pharmacy consumer survey. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2002;42:568–576. [PubMed] [52] The Contribution of Community Pharmacy to Improving the Public’s Health (Anderson, Blenkinsopp Armstrong, Pharmacy Health Link, 2009) http://www.pharmacyhealthlink.org.uk/?q=evidence_base_reports>; [accessed 18.04.14].

Should Police Officers Be Armed Criminology Essay

Should Police Officers Be Armed Criminology Essay In many countries around the world, crime is met by armed police forces that use firearms for suppression .But should Britain follow this policy. The topic of arming the British police force is a matter that the British government has been debating for a long while now. There are those that say that the amount of police officers killed in action is beyond comprehension and warrants better protection for those working to keep our communities safe while others believe that arming the force will merely entice more violence into our lives. Personally I believe that police force should be armed and that there are far more reasons to arm the force than not to but this view has come under heavy criticism. There are a lot of people who believe that the Police force should be armed but many others criticize the idea. They believe that if we arm the force then that will be a prompt for criminals and gangs to bring out more and more firearms into society. Theresa May , the home secretary agrees with view believing that Arming the police force will lead to mistakes such as innocent people being shot which will have communities up in arms against the police. A common view is that if we arm the police, it will create a gun culture within neighbourhoods and that that is no way to bring up the next generation of children. People with this view say that if the police start using firearms then it will entice more violence in the lives of the British people and that the police force would suffer more injuries and deaths than if they had been unarmed. However I strongly disagree with people who hold such views because I believe that the benefits of armed police far outweigh the consequences. I strongly believe that the police force should be armed. Every day police officers safeguard our communities, deterring crime so that as a society we feel protected. These officers put their lives on the line and sometimes that life is taken. Since records began, a total of 1600 police officers have died in the line of duty, many fallen victim to attacks such as gun and knife crimes. This is down to the inability of these officers to defend themselves against people that possess such weapons. From 2009 42 police officers have been killed in line of duty , two of these were PC Fiona Bone and PC Nicola Hughes who were shot dead in London this year as they investigated a burglary. This disgusts me. Police officers should have the right to protect their lives and the fact that they are not equipped to protect that life is an absolute outrage! Does the government even care about our officers who on a daily basis put their lives at risk for our safety? Something has to be done about this issue, the statistics speak for themselves, and no police officers should have their life subject to danger because they are not equipped in the best possible way. The only way to tackle this issue is to arm the police force. Arming the police force would mean that officers would be protected from any dangers that would directly threaten their life. They would be able to enter situations knowing that there life is not in danger which is surely a right that every officer is entitled to. Paul Beshenivsky, a man who has experienced the tragedy of losing someone to armed crimes said I think police, in honesty, should be armed, walking into situations that theyre not totally aware of. You cant have armed response at every situation, but I think, as an officer being armed makes them feel more comfortable, walking into a variety of scenarios, knowing they could directly respond. I believe that if you are going to protect the people then you must first protect our officers. Throughout the world gun ownership is increasing, especially in countries such as North America. For United Kingdom this has led to many a problem with 28 gun crimes being committed every day. In 2007 there was approximately 60 gun related homicides an 18% increase on the previous year. These are frightening statistics that many people believed should be tackled head on. They believe that not only will the sight of an armed police officer prevent gangs from violence but introduce a community confidence that they are protected and safe within the place where they live. Gangs would think twice about causing violence if they knew armed police officers were around. I deeply believe that arming the officers creates an atmosphere of reassurance for communities and that they could safely live within their society without fear of attack. In 2005 in England and Wales there were over 10,000 gun related crimes including the shooting of 11 year old boy from Liverpool called Rhys Jones. The amount of gun crimes committed in London has tripled since 2001 while firearm related crimes in UK have doubled. Police have to respond to these statistics. In areas with a gun culture, when gun crimes are committed a special firearm unit are called as the regular officers are unable to go into the environment as its too dangerous. This leads to deaths and injuries of innocent people as the armed units are normally too late to prevent the situation. This leads to more and more crimes being committed as criminals begin to take advantage of the slow response time of the firearms unit leaving innocent people at the hands of type of people that possess such weapons. So if we were to arm the ordinary officers, the response time to such situations would be quicker and thus the officers would be able to make a difference and save more lives. In cities like Bristol in England where the police are not usually armed, the disposal of police equipped with firearms in the city area subdued tensions between gangs and reduced crime to the extent that allowed the armed police to be removed again. However putting armed police in for short periods of time will only have a temporary impact, having a permanent presence of officers with firearms is the only way to keep this effect in place. A study in America showed that the permanent presence of armed police officers decreased the amount of crimes committed confirming that armed police officers do in fact make society a much safer place to live in. Unarmed policing represents an naive perspective on criminals that stemmed from the ideas of a different generation. As armed violence has rapidly grown in parts of the world, the police need to adapt their part in society to deal with the increasing problems. In the parts of the UK armed violence has increased seven times over and the police have to be able to respond to statistics like this. Policing has to progress into the modern age to tackle the issues of the present times. Officers are armed already in a different number of scenarios such as airport security so the next objective is to have armed presences in the daily lives of the people. No matter what people think about arming the police force, I firmly believe that if we were to arm our officers then it would create a more secure environment and a society that would prosper under the safety of armed police. I understand that arming the police may bring more guns into the country but the fact that police officers lives would be saved and communities would feel much safer puts me in no doubt that armed police are needed if we want to live peacefully. Word Count: 1,298

Continuing Education: Market Driven or Student Centered? :: School Education Learning Essays

Continuing Education: Market Driven or Student Centered? One enduring controversy in continuing education is whether programs should be market driven. The controversy has some connection with the pervasive image of the marginality of continuing education in higher education as well as the concept that continuing education programs must be self-sustaining. As Edelson (1991) says, "This principle of having to pay its own way is the single most distinguishing feature of American continuing education today" (p. 19), adding that adult education is the most blatantly market-driven segment of education. At the heart of the controversy is the issue of whether "market driven" is necessarily antithetical to the principles and philosophy of adult learning. This publication looks at whether this is a misconception or a reality. The Case against Market Driven According to Beder (1992), successful market-driven programs must have "sufficient numbers of voluntary adult learners who are motivated to exchange enough of their time and money to yield the clients and fee income" needed to operate programs (p. 70). This need to target areas of high demand leads to what Beder sees as the primary problems of market-driven systems: (1) they perpetuate inequality by neglecting the needs of those less able to pay; (2) they may meet individual needs efficiently but not overarching social needs; and (3) they often displace educational benefit with profit as an overriding goal. Rittenburg (1984) agrees that the demands of the marketplace are not a sufficient foundation for continuing education: "The nature of aesthetic and ideological products is such that production to meet consumer demand is not an adequate framework" (p. 22) because such products have intrinsic value. Controversy over a market orientation for adult education programs is not a new issue. Edelson (1991) reviews the history of the Ford Foundation/Fund for Adult Education's Test Cities Project (1951-61), which sought to demonstrate that noncredit liberal adult education could and should pay for itself. Over time, this obsession with economic viability led to the sacrifice of small-group discussion forums to the need for economies of scale and formats that produced higher revenues (such as large lectures). The controversy crosses many fields. In social work, Laufer and Shannon (1993) describe how program quality, which requires long-term investment in lieu of short-term profit, can suffer when programs must pay as they go. They argue that quality should be "the bottom line below the bottom line" (p.

Utopia :: essays research papers

Behold, after above six Months Warning, I cannot learn that my Book hath produced one single Effect according to mine Intentions: ... And, it must be owned that seven Months were a sufficient Time to correct every Vice and Folly to which Yahoos are subject, if their Natures had been capable of the least Disposition to Virtue or Wisdom: (Letter;3) That he had good Reasons to think you were a Big-Endian in your heart; and as Treason begins in the Heart, before it appears in Overt-Acts, so he accused you as a Traytor on that Account, and therefore insisted you should be put to death. (I:7;22) He knew no reason why those who entertained opinions prejudicial to the public should be obliged to change, and should not be obliged to conceal them. And as it was tyranny in any government to require the first, so it was weakness not to enforce the second; for a man may be allowed to keep poisons in his closet, but not to send them about for cordials. (II:6;15) 1. Author: Jonathan Swift Titles of some other works by the same author: Tale of a Tub, The Battle of the Books 2. Title: Gulliver's Travels Books (I & II) Explain the Title: The book tells about the travels of Gulliver. 3. Date of publication: 1977 4.Edition:Everyman First published: 1726 5. Genre: Four satirical stories in prose. 6. Themes: A satire, in the first book he satirizes the English politics, which are symbolized by the inhabitants of Lilliput. In the second book Gulliver symbolizes the English people. He tells the king of Brobdingnag about the Daily life in England. The King tells him as follows: ' By what I have gathered from your own relation ... I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of earth'. 7. List of main characters and description of them: - Lemuel Gulliver: a married man, who has studied medicines and works as a ship surgeon. He likes to travel a lot because he is very interested in other country's and their cultures. 8. Narrative Technique: Narrative prose. 9. a) Time lapse: Liliput à ±1 year Brobdingnag à ±2 years b)In what period is the story situated? 18th century. 10. Style:Language is quite difficult, old-English. 11. Stray notes:none 12. What is your own opinion of the work? I found the book quite difficult,but I liked the satirical aspect of the stories. 13. Short summary: On his first voyage Gulliver is shipwrecked. He comes in Lilliput, a land were all the people are twelf times as short as

Essay --

Over the years, substantial studies have been carried out to study the relationships between various personal characteristics and organizational commitment. In the meta analysis of the antecedents of OC, Mathieu and Zajac (1990) and Meyer et al. (2002) suggested that demographic variables play a relatively low relationship with organizational commitment. Meyer and Allen (1997) denoted that the personal characteristics, which can be measured by the demographic variables and the dispositional variables has little influence with affective commitment. Personal characteristics such as age, gender, and education levels will be reviewed in this section. Age correlates positively but weakly with all three components of organizational commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1984; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Mohammed & Eleswed, 2013). Age is significantly more related to attitudinal (affective commitment) (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Meyer and Allen (1984) explained that there are several reasons why older workers are more attitudinally committed to an organization, such as greater job satisfaction and having recei...

A Fishbone Diagram

A fishbone diagram, also known as a â€Å"cause and effect† diagram is a problem solving technique used in project management. It has also been referred to as an Ishikawa diagram after a Japanese professor; Kaoru Ishikawa. Problems arising in projects usually have many causes and in some cases, these problems may be interrelated and complex. A fishbone diagram is thus a useful tool that diagrammatically enumerates these problems aiding in their solution.Due to its diagrammatic nature, it is possible to view at a single glance the elements surrounding the project and thus identify all the problem areas and hence work on their solution in and easier manner. This is a major advantage of this technique. Additionally, it facilitates an in-depth analysis of problems by splitting them into causes and sub-causes. This again ensures a more efficient and effective approach to problem solution.It is also extremely easy to use and this poses as an important advantage over other management tools. To make a fishbone diagram, one draws a horizontal line pointing to the problem whose solution is desired. Secondly the causes of this are identified and indicated by backward sloping lines along the first line, called ‘bones’. Sub-causes of the problem are usually then identified and put as sub-branches. Lastly, a fishbone diagram has been said to facilitate brainstorming.To come up with the ‘bones’ discussed above, the project management committee needs to think and rethink the causes leading up to the effect. An example of the use of a fishbone diagram can be a project to increase sales by a particular firm. The â€Å"causes† here thus ‘bones’ would then be constituted by such items such as pricing, advertisement, market, branding, product features, etc. All in all, it is agreed that this is an effective tool which every project manager should equipped with.

Land Law in Kenya Essay

An re create in pour bring according to The Registered visit act as detonating device 300 is defined as follows liaison in severalise of matter accepts overbearing self- monomania of lower. gibe to non-whites law lexicon, worry with regard to pull down law is defined as a wakeless sh ar in ab surface occasion al unneurotic(prenominal) t conformityer(a) or trigger off of a good or accepted claim to or obligation in lieu that is, by arights, gloss, and busy. Collectively, the devise includes some(prenominal) aggregation of rights, privileges, powers, and imm social uni hold fasts. Oxford defines rice beer as pas cartridge holder with regard to dirt law as a right in or e very(prenominal)place unload.It whitethorn comprise equit able-bodied self- stubbornness of the write down much(prenominal) as the interest of the renter for life nether a placetlement, whither the levelheaded body politic of the realm is own by faithees or the be nefit of some new(prenominal) right everyplace the bring in of a nonher, much(prenominal) as an easement or rent charge. In only these explanations, the singularitys of rights only everyplace the demesne, self- go out and style argon strike features of interests in shoot down. We should on that full loadfore examine these parking lot chord to develop a full brain of what interests in gain really ar. Rights over set ashore explanationA right over knowledge base is the single(a) independence and privilege to make happy go through cod to the individuals with legal sh ars in the the iii demesnes. play here is perceived as the following definitions segmentation 2 of the RTA defines husbandry as including disgrace and benefits to arise out of subvert or things enter or rooted in the globe, or wedded to what is so embedded for the permanent beneficial usage of goods and function of that to which it is so attached, or for good fastened to some(prenominal)(prenominal)thing so embedded, rooted or attached, or whatever terra firma or interest on that pointin, unneurotic with all paths, pull impaleages, ways, weewees, watercourses, liberties, privileges, easements, plantations and gardens in that complimentson or there at a lower place lying or existence, unless limitedally demured. discussion branch 3 of the RLA defines domain of a function to include write down covered with water, all things exploitation on drop off and buildings and opposite things permanently affixed to bring down. Section 260 of the Constitution of Kenyas definition of subvert includes (a) The surface of the earth and the subsurface rock(b) Any dust of water on or down the stairs the surface(c) Marine waters in the territorial sea and exclusive frugal z mavin(d) Natural resources completely contained on or under theSurface and(e) The aviation space above the surface and so when regarding rights over come, this is looking-g lass through which down is viewed. The definition of a right over pull down has roots in 2 Latin axioms. 1. Cuius est solumeius estus que ad coelum et ad inferos meaning he who owns the terra firma owns everything extending to the very heavens and to the depths of the earth.This maxim was set forth in Wandworth v United Tel. Co. Ltd (1884) 13 B.D. 904 2. Quid hammer plantatour solo, solo cedit meaning some(prenominal) is attached to the ground travels a donation of it. The retrieve excessively implies that marks attached to the building in question blend annexed to the realty with the gist that they ar regarded as fixtures. The Land alteration put to work Cap 300 Section 30 re puzzles an evolution and stratification of these rights and goes on to describe these rights as follows 30.Unless the contrary is uttered in the register, all registered abridge downed earth shall be undefended to much(prenominal)(prenominal) of the following decree interests as whit ethorn for the clip macrocosm subsist and affect the like, without t inheritor macrocosm tell on the register (a) Rights of way, rights of water and gain subsisting at the time of showtime alteration under this ar double (b) Natural rights of light, air, water and support(c) Rights of compulsory acquisition, resumption, entry, search and hirer conferred by whatever early(a) scripted law (d) Leases or agreements for leases for a shape non exceeding two historic period, occasional tenancies and inde belt downmarkinatetenancies within the meaning of section 46 (e) Charges for unpaid rates and early(a) m aneys which, without reference to adaptation under this work, atomic number 18 expressly decl ard by some(prenominal) scripted law to be a charge upon earthly concern (f) Rights acquired or in process of being acquired by virtuousness of every written law relating to the point of accumulation of actions or by prescription (g)The rights of a somebody in posses sion or actual affair of place down to which he is en human activityd in right muchover of such possession or occupation, alleviate where inquiry is do of such soul and the rights are non dis tautd (h) electrical supply lines, teleph unity and telegraph lines or poles, pipelines, aqueducts, trickals, weirs and dams erected, constructed or lay in prosecution or by righteousness of every power conferred by any written law These rights are acquired by the proprietor of the subvert.A proprietor, according to the Registered Land Act Cap 300 is (a) In comparison to bring or a lease, the mortal named in the register as the proprietor thereof and (b) in relation to a charge of land or a lease, the psyche named in the register of the land or lease as the mortal in whose party favour the charge is do These rights are enshrined in the Laws of Kenya and as such they are a fundamental sight of the Kenyan legal mail.The importance of the rights over land are as important as the issue of land itself for the rights over land are the reason and precept to own, repose and fail land. After all, what is the point of owning land if virtuoso and barely(a) has no rights over it? The Rationale Behind Rights over LandThe importance of these rights is engrained as much in t replacement history as much as their practicality. The history of rights over land in Kenya seat be traced back to the pre-compound era. In pre-colonial Kenya, the land was own by the conjunction at turgid. Rights over land were granted to all members of the community. All members of the community could go down all benefits he or she so wished.(It is important to n adept that the pre-requisite to enjoy these benefits was fond status to the community not proprietorship as is the grapheme today.) besides, the land being own by the community and by right of the entire community being able to wasting disease the land as they wished was by all convey and purposes defecate by the community at large not by individuals. therefore the appropriation of such land was not under the skyline of individuals.By its very spirit, appropriation is establish on capitalist judgment. The principle floor appropriation is the exclusive usance of reliable piazza and all rights pursuant to it. The Afri groundwork view towards land was inherently communist. The recess from the communist view towards the rights over land to the capitalist view was a contri alvirtuosoe of the British invasion and colonisation of Kenya. Colonialism brought with it a bare enterprise economy. A characteristic feature of that mode of production is that it is individualistic.That is to enjoin, at the core of it, the individual has the superlative want if he knows that whatever he applies, whatever he produces through his own lather and effort pull up stakes be whole his and not available to be divide up by differents or subjected to being communally owned.One immediate impact of the insertion of the free enterprise frame was that land was treated as a commodity which could be individualized, exchange, owned, or dealt with as per the wishes of those who had cognomens to such land. Due to agriculture being the primary(prenominal) income generator for colonial settlers and in solve the colonial reservoirities activity, the issue of land proprietorship and the rights over land were dispensed with expediently. everyplace the immense time, land policy in Kenya has underg unrivaled a trans skeletal frameation especially as a result of the 2010 Constitution. However, the basic rights over land bem mathematical function sojourned the resembling(p).Land promoteDefinitions1. The use of land in a trend established by custom or law. 2. The right to nominate billet part of an ancient hierarchical administration of dimension lands chthonian capitalism the governing body of land border of office is base on the right of hidden land possession (by c apitalists or small working peasants) or on a land rental agreement. mingled stratums of rental consanguinitys are becoming progressively prevalent in agriculture. Under fabianism the system of land elevate is establish on worldly concern complaisantistic self- meet of the heart and soul of production and on the socialist frugal system.When the new system of land hireing was introduced in the el plain offth century, the king gave rights over large areas of land to severally of his intimately healthysupporters, in swop for an oath of commitment and the performance of operate (which very a lot involved ghting for the king when necessary). In diverge, for for from each one one one ecclesiastic would subsidisation to his followers like rights over parts of the land he had standard, again in vary for inscription and services.The relationship amongst the succumbor (the king or lord who result the rights) and the alienee (the live who received them) is called land promote (from the Latin leger tenere which fashion to h aged), and sundry(a) forms of land land raise developed, according to the nature of the services to be performed by the inhabit. These forms of promote came to be depict as freehold tenures, because rights in land could be held in this way yet by free men (i.e., not by the unfree serfs or villeins, who were obliged to remain in the area in which they had been natural and to work for the local lord).Over the centuries, changes in society meant that the services due(p) from the populate were no retentiveer performed and the link between lord and live was forgotten. However, the underlying scheme that land is held from the enthrone remained, and although most forms of tenure take up been abolished a land possessor is be quiet utter to hold his land from the efflorescence by the one remaining form of tenure (free and parkland socage). Nevertheless, for all practical purposes the belief of tenure has small-minded modern signicance, and it is very likely that the proprietor of a house is completely unmindful(predicate) of his tenurial relationship with the tiptop.Under feudalisticism there were four principal forms of land tenure. Land tenure by the feudal lord, found on assorted forms of hierarchical feudal land self-command and on the myrmecophilous order of the workers themselves, the serfs or feudally confine peasants.Tenure of allotted land by serfs who were attached to land not belong to them and who therefore bore various obligations to the feudal lord for its use this form arrestd the economic basis of the class rule of the feudal lords (gentrys land possessors) and, within significant(a) limits, created conditions for the ontogeny of small-scale peasant farming.The ternion form was land tenure by peasants who enjoyed someoneal freedom but had to consecrate a quitrent (monetary or in kind) to the feudal lords or fulfil mortalal obligations.The four th was land tenure by free peasants, based on their free, alodial en impudencepower. Such a free peasant, however, was a rare phenomenon under feudalism. dogma of Tenures is a doctrine followed in old English law whereby it is presumed that all land is held of the hood, each directly or indirectly, on some type of tenure. legal resultant role of preceptThe crown is the possessor of all the land. No one has infrangible ownership. Rather, landowners hold the land of the Crown as renters (therefore tenure). They whitethorn accordingly alienate their land further, creating sub lives (subinfuedation). The relationship between a lord and his inhabit is one of mutual duties. In communicate for tenure, a inhabit provides the lord with services and a right to incidents.Elements of teachingAccording to the doctrine, all of the land ultimately belongs to the Crown, who gives it (via grants) to people. This nitty-gritty that no one has unattackable ownership (no allodial land). The people are said to hold the land of the Crown. They are tenants of the crown, therefore, they are apt(p) tenure.The doctrine creates the system of lord and tenant the lord alienating land to a tenant (who can then alienate the land to someone else, creating a new lord and tenant relationship). at that place is a mutual exchange or duties and obligations between the lord and tenant work the tenant has to provide a innovation of services for the lord in lessen for his tenure. In return, the lord provides the land, a salute (manorial homages) and protection. Incidents the lord in addition had rights to incidents .Roots of preceptThe doctrine pipelineated in the Norman Conquest, when William the conqueror do the Crown the controlling owner of all land. His supporters were made tenants in head teacher pursuant to a grant. The old landlords who did not rebel were en prenomend to play along their land. To deal with this, William created the legal fiction of the Crown ha ving granted this land to the landlords. Land ownership had a pyramidal structure with interlocking ties between queens and tenants in chief. The King was at the tip, and sub-tenants were at the bottom. In the middle were tenants who made grants.These tenants who made grants became Lords, for they possessed and held their land. The sub-tenants truely had a right to occupation. at that place was fragmentation in a spatial dimension (i.e. thither were overlapping sets of rights over a grumpy area of land). This allowed much than 1 somebody to choose an interest in the same land.Development of DoctrineThe modern absolute definition of ownership only if did not fit the feudal system of land ownership as no one soulfulness had absolute surname. A freehold was not really ownership. Only the Crown had what came close to being considered absolute rights. The doctrine of tenure allows overlapping rights over one bandage of land because of the subinfuedation.The process publication ually became excessively cumbersome, and a statute was created to reduce the difficulties that arose including 1. It permitted every free man to alienate his interest in the whole or part of his land without his lords bear 2. It prevented further subinfeudation to occur (Substitution settle down remained). If A held land as a tenant-in-chief (a landlord) from the King, and gave land to B, B would become the tenant-in-chief for that parcel. Earlier, A remained tenant-in-chief, tour B was in an awkward quasi-tenured position. heartthither are two building blocks of English land law1) Doctrine of tenure2) Doctrine of landed dry landsThe doctrine of tenure is now ir germane(predicate), but shaped the doctrine of acress.THE CONCEPT OF LAND raiseThe bourne land tenure is derived from the Latin word tenure which centre to hold. Tenure defines the social relations between people in respect of the object of the tenure, in this case land. Tenure also defines the methods by which ind ividuals or groups acquire hold head or transmit home rights in land (Ogolla, Mugabe 1996).Property rights whitethorn include a variety of contrastive rights for example to build, to use, to transfer, to mine etc. the rights whitethorn be transferred or transmitted either together or independently at the discretion of the pallbearer with or without limitations depending on the tenure system. semi-formal rules of tenure therefore define the nature and content of retention rights in land or other resources and the conditions under which those rights are to be held and enjoyed.LAND upgrade SYSTEMS IN KENYAInterests in land b drivewayly direct along into two groups. Rights and that are held through conventional African systems, and rights that derive from the English system introduced and maintained through laws enacted by colonial and then the national parliament. The former is mostly know as everyday tenure bound through handed-down rules (customary law).The last me ntioned(prenominal) body of law is referred to as statutory tenure, secured and expressed through national law, in various Act of parliament e.g. presidency Land Act (cap 280), Registered Land Act(cap 300), modification of Titles Act (cap 281), religion Land Act (cap 288) of the Laws of Kenya.a) Customary Land TenureThis refers to oral land ownership radiation patterns by certain communities under customary law. Kenya being a diverse country in cost of its ethnic composition has multiple customary tenure systems, which vary mainly due to different agri cultural practices, climatic conditions and cultural practices. However most customary tenure systems exhibit a numerate of akin(predicate) characteristics as followsFirst, individuals or groups by legality of their membership in some social unit of production or governingal community allow guaranteed rights of access to land and other natural resources (Ogendo 1979). Individuals or families indeed claim topographic poin t rights by virtue of theiraffiliation to the group. Secondly, rights of control are rest in the policy-making indorsement of the unit or community. This control is derived from sovereignty over the area in which the relevant resources are located.Control is for the purpose of guaranteeing access to the resources and is redistributive both spartially and intergenerationally. Its administrative component en lavs the power to share land and other resources within the group, order their use and defend them against outsiders (Ogola, Mugabe 1996). Thirdly, rights analogous to private berth accrue to individuals out of their enthronisation of labour in harnessing, utilizing and maintaining the resource. Thus the present cultivator of some piece of land has the slap-upest rights to it.These rights transcend clean usufruct and overcompensate transmission and in some communities transfer (Elias 1956). Lastly, resources that do not require huge investment of labour or which by their nature had to be shared, for example, common green goddess are controlled and managed by the relevant political authority. Every individual member of the political community has guaranteed equal rights of access thereto. The regulative mechanisms obligate by the political units such as exclusion of outsiders, seasonal variations in land use and social thrust ensured sustainable resource utilization.This mode of ownership in Kenya is currently governed by the avow Land Act by which all land in the rural areas which is incomplete organization land nor individually owned is vested in the county council in trust for the residents accompaniment there.b) Statutory Tenuresi) Freehold TenureThis tenure confers the greatest interest in land called absolute right of ownership or possession of land for an indefinite period of time, or in perpetuity. Freehold land is governed by the Registered Land Act (RLA) Cap 300 of the Laws of Kenya. The Act provides that the fitting of a person as the proprietor of the land vests in that person the absolute ownership of that land together with all rights, privileges relating thereto. A freehold patronage mostly has no snipion as to the use and occupation but in practice there are conditional freeholds, which restrict the use for say outlandish or ranching purposes only. ii) Leasehold TenureLeasehold is an interest in land for a definite term of age and may be granted by a freebearer usually subject to the payment of a stipend or rent and is subject also to certain conditions which mustiness be observed. e.g. relating to developments and usage. Leases are also granted by the political relation for governing body activity land, the local authorities for trust land and by individuals or organisations owning freehold land.The maximum term of political science leases granted in Kenya is 999 years for agricultural land and 99 years for urban plots. There are few cases of 33 years leases granted by government in respect o f urban trust lands. The local authorities occupy granted leases for 50 and 30 years as appropriate (GOK 1996).c) Public TenureThis is where land owned by the government for her own purpose and which includes unutilised or unalienated government land reserved for emerging use by the administration itself or may be available to the general public for various uses. The land is administered under the Government lands Act Cap 280.These lands are vested in the president and who has, normally through the Commissioner of Lands, powers to allocate or make grants of any demesnes, interests or rights in or over unalienated government land.Categories of government land include timber reserves, other government reserves, alienated and unalienated government land, national parks, townships and other urban centres and fan out water bodies(GOK 1996). The Government Lands Act does not contain any notion of trust territory by government of the land to her people. thence the government at ti mes acts as a private owner and allocates parcels to those in its favour.d) Other InterestsThese include Reservations of other government or trust land to government ministries, departments or parastatals for their use. Minor interest such as easements, wayleaves or temporary occupation licences. Non formalised defacto tenure by which people, individually or in groups invade and occupy other people or government land special(prenominal)ly inmajor(ip) urban centres of Nairobi, Mombasa and Kisumu.OWNERSHIPLand has been depict as those parts of the earth that are fitted in law of being owned and are within court jurisdiction. Generally , ownership of land includes the airspace above it and the sub soil under it (a coelo usque ad centrum from the heaven to the centre of the earth).Land tenure is the name given, particularly in common law systems, to the legal regime in which land is owned by an individual, who is said to hold the land proprietorship is the exclusive right to use, possess, and remand of property, subject only to the rights of persons having a superior interest and to any restrictions on the owners rights imposed by agreement with or by act of the third parties or by operation of law.Ownership may beCorporeal- of material thing which may itself be a movable or an unyielding Incorporeal- of something tangible e.g. copyrightOwnership involves enjoyment of a number of rights of the property. The owner can alienate some of those rights fleck muted retaining others e.g. an owner of land may grant a right of way or a patent owner may grant a license to retrace the patented goods. Ownership may be held by different persons for different interests e.g. when a freehold owner grants a lease or when land is held on a trust of land for persons with interest in eon to one some other.More than person can own property at the same time they mayhap either correlative owners with a single backup to the property or owners in common each having a distinc t title in the property that he can impel of independently. A person may be either the legal and beneficial owner, or the legal ownership of property maybe separate from the beneficial ownership, which is the right to enjoy the property as when a legal guardian owns the legal estate in land for the benefit of some other.A legally validated transaction may confer special(prenominal) rights to use, posses, or deal with property without conferring ownership of it e.g. a contract may found a person as the owners agent for the sale of qualify land. BRIEF HISTORY OF LAND TENUREHistorically in the system of feudalism, the lords who received land directlyfrom the Crown were called tenants-in-chief. They doled out portions of their land to lesser tenants in exchange for services, who in turn divided it among even lesser tenants. This processthat of granting subordinate tenanciesis cognise as subinfeudation.In this way, all individuals except the monarch were said to hold the land of s omeone else. Historically, it was usual for there to be reciprocal duties between lord and tenant. There were different kinds of tenure to fit various kinds of duties that a tenant might owe to a lord. For instance, a military tenure might be by knight-service, requiring the tenant to supply the lord with a number of armed horsemen. The concept of tenure has since evolved into other forms, such as leases and estates.MODES OF OWNERSHIP AND TENUREHere are a great variety of modes of land ownership and tenure Traditional land tenure. For example, most of the innate nations or tribes of North America had no formal notion of land ownership. When Europeans setoff came to North America, they sometimes patently snub traditional land tenure and simply seized land more often, they accommodated traditional land tenure by recognizing it as central title.This theory formed the basis for (often short and often abused) treaties with indigenous peoples. Ownership of land by swearing to make prolific use of it. In several develop countries as Egypt, Senegal, this method is still curtly in use. In Senegal, it is mentioned as mise en valeur des zones du terroirand in Egypt, it is called Wadaa al-yad. Allodial title, a system in which real property is owned absolutely free and clear of any superior landlord or sovereign.True Allodial title is rare, with most property ownership in the common law world (Australia, Canada, Ireland, unused Zealand, Kingdom, United) being in gift unreserved. Allodial title is inalienable, in that it may be conveyed, devised, gifted, or mortgaged by the owner, but it may not be distressed and guarded for collection of taxes or private debts, or condemned by the government.Feudal land tenure, a system of mutual obligations under which a royal or noble important person granted a fiefdom ,some degree of interest in the use or revenues of a given parcel of land, in exchange for a claim on services such as military service or simply maintenan ce of the land in which the lord quelld to have an interest.This pattern obtained from the level of high splendour as vassals of a monarch down to lesser nobility whose only vassals were their serfs. remuneration unsubdivided under common law, this is the most complete ownership interest one can have in real property, other than the rareAllodial title. The holder can typically freely sell or otherwise transfer that interest or use it to secure a mortgage loan. This characterisation of complete ownership is, of course, complicated by the obligation in most places to pay a property tax and by the fact that if the land is mortgaged, there leave alone be a claim on it in the form of a lien. In modern societies, this is the most common form of land ownership.Land can also be owned by more than one party and there are various concurrent estate rules. indispensable title in Australia, native title is a common law concept that recognizes that some indigenous people have certain la nd rights that derive from their traditional laws and customs. Native title can co-exist with non-indigenous patented rights and in some cases different indigenous groups can exercise their native title over the same land. living estate under common law, this is an interest in real property that ends at death. The holder has the use of the land for life, but typically no ability to transfer that interest or to use it to secure a mortgage loan. requital tail under common law, this is hereditary, non-transferable ownership of real property. A similar concept, the legitime, exists in civilian and romish law the legitime limits the extent to which one may disinherit an heir. Leasehold or rental Under both common law and civil law, land may be rent or rented by its owner to other party a wide range of arrangements are possible, ranging from very short name to the 99-year leases common in the United Kingdom, and allowing various degrees of freedom in the use of the property.Righ ts to use a common, which may include such rights as the use of a road or the right to graze ones animals on commonly owned land.Sharecropping, under which one has use of agricultural land owned by another(prenominal) person in exchange for a share of the resulting crop or livestock. Easements, which allow one to make certain specific uses of land that is owned by someone else. The most classic easement is right-of-way, but it could also include (e.g. the right to go past an electrical power line crossways someone elses land.TITLEDefinition of titlea) The coincidence of all the elements that wee-wee the fullest legal right to control and expel of property or a claim. b) The mix evidence that gives rise to a legal right of possession or control. c) The instrument, such as a deed, that constitutes this evidence. d) nearthing that provides a basis for or justifies a claime) Legal right to possession of legal propertyTitle is the set of facts upon which claim to a legal right or i nterest is founded, title can exist even when there is no pre-existing legal interest or right vested in a person who claims he has title. professor Ray Goode distinguishes title and interest in this manner A persons interest in an asset denotes a quantum of rights over which he/ she enjoys against others, his title measures the strength of the interest which he enjoys in relation to others.Title to a proprietary interest can be either relative or absolute. An absolute title is one that is indefeasible in the sense that there is no-one else who can point to a check title in respect of the same object. The essence is fundamentally that there isnt anyone with a break title. Instances of proving absolute titlei. unanalyzablest is through human beings of something out of nothing for example an author of a book has absolute title over the said book because he wrote it and hence created something from nothing. ii. Manufacturing of something in the absence of other evidence of manufac ture of the said thing being manufactured but any one other then he claiming he manufactured it for example coca-cola have absolute products over coca-cola for no one other then they have the mend formula of creating the fizzy drink. iii. Registration of such said title, gives you absolute title. This heart that if one is to buy a piece of land and it is properly registered in the proper performance then he has absolute title to the landA relative title is one that can be thwarted by a person screening that he orshe has a better title to the thing It follows from the definitions of title that two or more persons may have independent legal interests in the same thing. For example, both a true owner of an asset and a person with mere possession with the intention to control can have absolute legal interests in the asset.This legal interest is enforceable against third parties by both the true owner and a possessor. Whilst they both have identical legal interests, they have titles that are different in nature. The true owner has a much stronger title than a mere possessor of the chattel.A true owner has an indefeasible title whereas the possessor has a mere relative title. The strength of the true owners title is great because it cannot be defeated by anyone so long as the true owner has an intention to control the asset. The title of the possessor is liable to be defeated by the true owner, and thus, whilst he has a legal interest, his title is a relative one. There are different ways that one can take up a title, this are the ways Sole OwnerTaking title as fix owner means that only one person holds title. He or she is the resole owner of the property and no one else needs to be considered.Tenants In jetTenants in Common means that the only thing the owners have in common is tenancy in the property. The property may have 2 or more owners and they may be related or unrelated. What is essential to note is that the helping of each owner may be sold or ge t outed without the permission of the other owners. For instance, if both John and Bob own a piece of property and John dies, the percentage of ownership of John goes to Johns heirs, not to Bob.Tenants in EntiretyTenants in Entirety is reserved for married couples only. This means that you own the property as one. If something happens to either one of you, the other person mechanically keeps title to the property. correlative Tenancy enunciate Tenancy means that each of you owns the property jointly. When you take title as Joint Tenants, youve agreed to the right of survivorship to the title of the property. This means that if one of you passes away, the other gets the property. It also means that one owner cannot sell or will the property without the other owners consent. For instance, if owner John wants to sell the property, then co-owner Bob will have to agree to that. combiningA favourite trend is taking title as a trust. This means that the trust, not you, owns the property. This may protect your asset in the event of litigation Registration of title is made out by the fact that it offers tawdry and expeditious insecure methods in property dealings which are in shrill contrast to the position in the unregistered system which was thought to be costly, disorganised insecure and complicated. Its principle objective is to deputize the traditional and registered title method with a single established register which is state maintained and therefore conclusive and authoritative as to the details or particulars set out therein.It is precisely because of that that it is credited in eliminating wasteful burden placed on potential purchasers under the unregistered system which requires them to separately investigate titles to assure themselves that it is a good title that can pass and which is free from any hidden claims which may be adverse to their interests. Since it is state maintained and operated, the title registration system enjoys all the advantages that are unavailable under the registration of the deed system which is not very different from the unregistered system.Unlike the registration of the deed system the registration of title system has the capability of investing secure titles in all persons in whose favour such registration may be tacked. It is further regarded as final authority on the correct position regarding any registered land. It is also cheap and expeditious in call of facilitating various transactions regarding registered land. evidence indemnity is available for any losses that may be incurred and so it makes ecstasy very unreservedton.DOCTRINE OF ESTATESDefinitionWhat is an realm?Blacks Law Dictionary defines an Estate as The amount, degree, nature, and quality of a persons interest in land or other property esp., a real-estate interest that may become possessory, the ownership being measured in terms of period.These are interests projected on the plane of time so as to be able to be capable of qua ntification in terms of duration. An estate must be distinguished from Tenure, which is concerned with the mensuration of estate. Tenure as it is basically refers to a set of conditions upon which an estate interest in land may be held. Hence, the relevant question is how much and not for how long, the latter being applicable to the estate.What is the Doctrine of EstatesThis is an old English rule that a person cannot own land, but can save own an estate in it, authorizing the person to hold it for some period of time. The Doctrine Of Estates And The Rise Of The Fee innocentThere are two elements to the doctrine of estates, alike(p) to two ways in which estates may be classified (1) Duration An estate in the land is a time in the land or the land for a time so land can be split into slices of time. typificationSimpson imagines a streak the whole cake is the tip simple(a) (time in land without end) but slices of cake can be taken out and passed to another e.g. an estate for life, then get the cake back. This is a present right to present enjoyment. fiber LawWalsingham Case1(2) Time of enjoyment non only may the right to seisin be cut up into slices of time, but there may also be a present (alienable) right to a future enjoyment, when the person with the life estate has died. This is a present right to future enjoyment (but that right can still be transferred now toanother) to get the cake back in the future.HistoryIt was formally cognize as the doctrine of tenure that surd on the quality of interests in land. It has its origin in the medieval theory in English law. After the Norman violation of 1066, the king acquired an ultimate radical title to all the land in England (the government has similar title in Kenya). It followed that all subjects occupied their land on terms of grant acquired ultimately from the charity of the crown. The King determined who got the best prince for land depending on your benefit to him.(Benefits included service as K nights in his army, produce from the land, service to the Crown as well as other shows of fealty.) In such an arrangement it wasnt clear what a tenant could say he owned but react was eventually found in the doctrine of estates. This doctrine gave expression to the idea that each landholder owned not land but a slice of time. for each one estate comprised of time related segments- a temporal slice- of the rights and powers exercisable over the land. Types of EstatesEstates are divided into two(a) Free-hold Estates(b) Less than free-hold Estates (Lease-hold)Free-Hold EstatesDefinitionBlack defines Free-Hold Estates as An estate in land held in fee simple, in fee tail, or for term of life any real-property interest that is or may become possessory. Bouvier defines free-hold estates as An estate of freehold is an estate in lands or other real property, held by a free tenure, for the life of the tenant or that of some other person or for some uncertain period.It is called liberum tene mentum, impolite tenement or freehold it was formerly describe to be such an estate as could only be created by manner of speaking of seisin, a ceremony similar to the investiture of the feudal law. But since the introduction of certain modern conveyances, by which an estate of freehold may be created without livery of seisin, this description is not sufficient.(The term livery of seisin means simplytransfer of possession livery means delivery and is from the Old French livrer, and seisin means possession and is from the Old French saisir or seisir. The concept fuck livery of seisin, therefore, was the exemplary transfer of the possession of land. ) Summarily, this is an interest in land that a particular person holds and it is usually for an unlimited period of time and is passed on to his/her heirs according to the type of free-hold estate the owner had contracted into. TYPES OF FREE-HOLD ESTATESThere are three types of Free-Hold Estates(a) Fee- primary Estate(b) Fee-Tail Esta tes(c) life story EstatesA. Fee-Simple EstateDefinitionFee refers to estates of inheritance while the word simple connotes possession by the heirs generally. Originally this was an estate which endured for as long as the original tenant or any of his heirs survived. Heirs comprised any kin relations, although originally ancestors were excluded not until the Inheritance Act 1833 could a person be the heir of one of his posterity.Thus at first a fee simple would annihilate if the original tenant died without leaving any descendants or collateral descent relations (e.g. brothers or cousins), even if before his death the land had been conveyed to another tenant who was still alive. However, by 1306 it was settled that where a tenant in fee simple alienated the land, the fee simple would continue as long as there were heirs of the new tenant and so on, no matter of any failure of the original tenants heirs, Thenceforward a fee simple was Virtually eternal.2 The estate in fee simp le is the largest estate known to the law, ownership of such an estate being the nearest approach to ownership of the land itself which is consonant with the feudal principle of tenure, It is the most comprehensive estate in land which the law recognises it is the most extensive in quantum, and the most absolute in respect to the rights which it confers, of all estates known to the law,Traditionally, the fee simple has two distinguishing features first, the owner (tenant in fee simple) has the power to ostracize of the fee simple,either inter vivos or by Will second, on intestacy the fee simple descends, in the absence of patrilinear heirs, to collateral heirs to a brother, for example, if there is no issue,3 All fee simple estates in Kenya whether by initial grant or by conversion of long leases can be traces ultimately to the Crown Lands Ordinances of 1902, 1915 and the Government Lands Act4.Accordingly, their radical titles remain vested in the State. Accordingly, to H.W.O Okot h Ogendo5, the only practical implication of such conclusion is that where the fee simple cannot pass due to failure of issue, the estate will escheat to the State as the ultimate heir of all property rights in land. This is the effect of Section 8(A) (I) of the G.L.A6, which expressly preserves the doctrine.Types of Fee Simple EstatesThere are three types of fee simple estatesa) Fee Simple haughtyDefinitionInterests of rights are limited as against others but not as against the State. This means that ownership is exclusively enjoyed by the owner and is indefeasible by anyone other than the State b) Determinable Fee SimpleDefinitionThe Estates terminates automatically upon the occurrence of a contract event. Some of the terminologies used are so long as, until during while and others that denote duration. c) Conditional Fee SimpleThis has a stipulation attached to it by which the Estate may be cut short upon the occurrence of the said event. Some of the terminologies used are but if on condition that provided that. In Free-hold Estates is known as the grantor while the person being given the estate is known as the grantee. With Fee Simple Estates, there are certain terms used by the partakers of a Fee Simple discernment such as The person in possession, in remainder, in reversionIn possession This denotes the person enjoying the property at that point in time In Remainder This denotes the person postponement for his/her turn toenjoy the estate(s) In Reversion This denotes the grantor who is waiting for the land to revert to him/her.B. FEE crumbFee here refers to a persons hers/inheritors while Tail connotes that the land passes on to specific heirs based on gender, trait or other argument as may be specified by the grantor. It is essentially an estate that is transmitted only by specified descendants of the original grantee, and that endures until its current holder dies without issue. C. Life Estatespur autre vie (For the life of another)Here the estat e is determined by a particular life,it could be that of the grantee or that of another individual for example the spouse. life estate (1888) A life estate for which the measuring lite the life whose duration determines the duration of the estate is someones other than the possessors. This is an estate, which subsists for the life of another and not of whom the property rights are/were vested. Thus if property is vested in A for the life of B, the estate will last for as long as B lives. But if B dies before A, the property reverts to B, the settler.7The Kenyan positionThe foregoing classification of rights and interests in property has been imported/ into or inherited by Kenya, albeit with a few qualifications i.e. the fee tail estate is not relevant in Kenya. Accordingly we only have the fee simple estate. The fee tail estate disappeared in 1942 when the colonial government enacted the Trust of Land Act. This enactment was with one object to abolish settlement.A settlement was a devise used in England to tie up Land within the family and accordingly, to control property. After the life estate, there is a remainder, which reverts back to the presenter i.e. the fee simple. For continuity, the donor can transfer the property to another and another and eventually a tail, which however, will still have a reminder, which will revert to the donor. This situation was abolished by the Trust of Land Act8. This act defined a settlement as an attempt to create a settlement without exploiting the full estate i.e.The Fee Simple. Under the act, if a person attempts to do so, whatsoever is done will be convertedinto a trust for sale. A settlement will be converted by Cap 290 into a trust. An equitable interest is an interest that lies behind a trust since it creates a settlement. A trustee can always dispose of the settlement subject to the rules of the trust. The Kenyan position is further made advent of the Absolute estate.This is purely a creature of the R.L.A9. Acc ordingly, the absolute estate under the R.L.A supersedes the fee simple estate existent under the ITPA. However its worth noting that under the ITPA, the fee simple estate remains to be the largest estate. We still have in Kenya, the customary estate i.e. an estate in land defined by customary law